Identification and Domestic Labor Migration Between Kenya and the UAE

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE), introduced the Kafala sponsorship-based work visa system in the wake of rapid economic expansion driven by the oil boom of the 1950s through the 1970s. 1

The Kafala system binds an employee to a specific employer for the period of their residency in the country. The system had its roots in the adoption of children and made it nearly impossible to operate as a migrant worker without the consent of a resident who would be responsible for the worker. A migrant worker could not find alternative employment or even apply for services such as a driver’s license on their own. Framed under the banner of “modernization,” this system enabled the recruitment of migrant labor to meet the surging demand for workers in infrastructure, construction, and service industries. Initially, the majority of migrant workers came from other Arab nations, but as the iconic skylines of Dubai and Abu Dhabi rose, the labor force shifted towards South Asia, particularly Bangladesh and India, largely due to their perceived lower cost of labor.

Kenya and the UAE share a long-standing relationship dating back to the historical Indian Ocean trade, 2 but significant Kenyan migration to the UAE is a relatively recent phenomenon. Over the last 15 years, thousands of Kenyans have been drawn to the Gulf in pursuit of higher wages and opportunities in sectors like construction, hospitality, and domestic work. Many are motivated by the ability to support families back home through remittances. According to the Central Bank of Kenya, diaspora remittances amounted to US$1.55 billion (excluding informal channels), representing 3% of Kenya’s GDP, 18.2% of which came from Gulf States and other countries. 3

Nevertheless, the number of Kenyan migrant workers choosing the UAE as a destination has steadily declined in recent years. While estimates placed the Kenyan workforce in the UAE at approximately 60,000 in September 2021, this number had halved by May 2025. 4 Respondents reported that this was in part due to payment issues from labor agents and competition from Kuwait and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

By 2025, migrant workers make up 80% of the UAE’s population, with approximately 30,000 Kenyans among them. Most Kenyans are employed in semi-skilled or unskilled roles. 5 Notably, 60% of Kenyan migrants in the UAE work in domestic service and are classified as unskilled labor. 6 Others are employed in hospitality, transport, security, ICT, aviation, and education as teacher assistants. Kenya is now aiming to expand labor export in skilled sectors, particularly healthcare, targeting roles such as doctors, nurses, and lab technicians. 7 These roles will, however, require extensive post-secondary education and years of experience 8 before making an application for recognition of one’s qualification. The process of recognition and licensing may include undertaking relevant examinations.

These migration patterns come with significant challenges. The Kafala system restricts migrant workers’ ability to change employers or exit the country freely, increasing their vulnerability to human rights abuses, including forced labor and wage theft. Although some GCC countries have initiated reforms to mitigate exploitation and rebalance employment relationships, many structural and legislative barriers persist. One such obstacle is the “absconding regime,” which enables employers to declare workers as having “run away,” a label that automatically leads to termination of both their work and residency permits. 9

This situation is especially precarious for low-skilled migrant workers, who often receive low wages, face discrimination, and endure poor working conditions. Among them, women are particularly vulnerable. Domestic work is a highly gendered sector: in Dubai, a large percentage of Kenyan domestic workers are women. 10 UNDESA reported that women made up 31% of the 35 million international migrants in the GCC, Jordan, and Lebanon. 11

Despite these risks, the perception of international labor migration remains broadly positive in Kenya. Migrant workers contribute not only to household livelihoods through remittances, but also to the transfer of technology and skills. Recognizing the importance of protecting its migrant workforce, Kenya has ratified key international instruments including ILO Conventions No. 143 (Migrant Workers) and No. 97 (Migration for Employment). It is also a signatory to the East African Community Common Market Protocol and the UN Global Compact on Migration, all of which obligate the state to uphold the rights and welfare of Kenyan migrant workers abroad.

Push factors: Why Kenyans leave Kenya

High unemployment and underemployment

Kenya faces a national unemployment rate of approximately 12.7%. Among youth aged 18–35 (the demographic that dominates the job market) unemployment reaches a staggering 67%. 12 Many young people remain job-ready but lack access to meaningful employment opportunities.

Limited formal sector opportunities

Even for those with postsecondary education, job prospects in Kenya are limited. Many are forced into the informal sector, including gig work such as motorcycle taxi (boda boda) or ride-share driving. These roles often offer low pay, lack security, and come with unpredictable working conditions.

Low wages and widespread poverty

Nearly half of Kenya’s workforce is classified as working poor (people who are employed but unable to earn a sustainable income). 13 As a result, many workers are constantly seeking alternative income-generating opportunities.

Family obligations and economic pressure

A major driver of migration is the desire to support families back home. Many workers are motivated by the hope of improving their families’ living standards, covering essentials like education, healthcare, housing, and food.

Pull factors: Why Kenyans choose the UAE

Perception of better pay and stable jobs

The booming UAE economy presents the promise of higher wages and more consistent employment, particularly in sectors like domestic work, hospitality, construction, and security.

Recruiter narratives and promises of upward mobility

Recruitment agents often promote the UAE as a gateway out of poverty, offering opportunities for skill-building, saving money, and accessing essentials such as healthcare and education for workers’ families. This narrative can be a powerful motivator, especially when job prospects at home are scarce.

Appeal of improved living conditions

Many Kenyans migrate believing they will have access to decent housing, safe working environments, and timely, full payment of wages. While this is sometimes true, outcomes vary significantly depending on the employer and sector.

Overview of the migration journey and identification touchpoints

The migration process for domestic workers to the UAE begins with the identification of a labor demand in the destination country. A UAE registered recruitment agent communicates this need by issuing a formal Demand Letter to a licensed Kenyan recruitment agent. 14

The Kenyan agent submits this letter to the embassy of the UAE in Nairobi for authentication. The embassy confirms that the foreign recruitment agency is duly licensed and authorized to recruit from Kenya. Authentication is evidenced by an official stamp on the demand letter. The embassy may approve or reject the request based on its assessment.

Once authenticated, the demand letter is uploaded onto the National Employment Authority (NEA) portal by the Kenyan recruitment agent. After this, the agent is allowed to begin recruitment. Domestic workers are usually sourced through referrals, direct outreach to vocational training institutions such as NITA, or the NEA’s job-seekers database (NEAIMS).

Upon successful recruitment, candidates begin the emigration process. The first step involves signing of a valid employment contract which is to be provided by the UAE agent. The contract has to be attested by a labor officer from the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection.

The candidate then prepares to leave the country by:

• Obtaining a valid Kenyan passport. The primary travel document required for international travel, the passport also serves as proof of identity and nationality. It is mandatory for visa applications and entry into the destination For a Kenyan to obtain a passport, they need a birth certificate, valid national identification card (ID), and parents’ IDs.
• Obtaining a Certificate of Good Also known as a Police Clearance Certificate, this document confirms whether the applicant has a criminal record. It is issued by the Directorate of Criminal Investigations in Kenya.
• Obtaining a GAMCA medical certification. The Gulf Approved Medical Centres Association (GAMCA) medical examination is a mandatory health screening for all migrants intending to work in GCC countries. The examination is conducted by GAMCA-accredited hospitals only. It involves two rounds of testing to assess the domestic worker’s physical fitness and to screen for communicable diseases such as tuberculosis.

These documents, along with the demand letter or contract and professional certificates, are required to apply for a work permit and a visa from the destination country. The work permit will provide valid immigration status for the domestic worker in the UAE. It also serves as official authorization for the migrant domestic worker to reside and work in the country.

Once the work visa is issued, all the documents are then submitted to NEA who verify the documents and issue clearance to travel. Before clearance is issued, however, the worker has to undergo mandatory pre-departure training to prepare for life abroad. 15

Clearance from the NEA confirms that the domestic worker has been processed through the official Kenyan labor migration It also ensures that the domestic worker is migrating through legal and regulated channels, with basic protections against scam compound jobs 16 and potential exploitation in place.

This clearance will be confirmed at the airport before the worker is allowed to leave the country.

Once the domestic worker arrives in the UAE, they must undergo a compulsory medical examination, ostensibly to prove that they are fit for work.

The workers are then eligible to apply for the Emirates ID, usually with the assistance of their The Emirates ID is the official identity document issued by the UAE Federal Authority and it is mandatory for all residents to carry it at all times. It is a vital document for accessing government services and is sufficient for travel within GCC countries. The ID has a fifteen-digit unique personal number and a chip.

Regulatory context governing domestic labor migration

Several key government ministries and agencies are involved in labor migration between Kenya and the UAE.

• The Ministry of Labour and Social Protection is the lead ministry overseeing labor migration. Through the Department of Labour, it is responsible for the attestation of foreign employment contracts. 17 This service ensures that contracts for employment are genuine and that the job opportunity really The ministry also places labor attachés in Kenyan consulates in the UAE to deal with the employment-related issues and provide aid to workers in distress.
• The National Employment Authority (NEA) regulates and oversees the recruitment of Kenyan migrant domestic workers. It also licenses recruitment agencies, maintains a national database of job seekers, and ensures that domestic workers meet eligibility NEA also conducts pre-departure verification and issues clearance certificates, which are essential for identifying and tracking domestic workers deployed to the UAE through official channels. 18
• The Directorate of Immigration Services verifies NEA clearance at points of departure to prevent irregular It is also responsible for issuing passports, which are used to confirm the identity and legal status of departing domestic workers.
• The Ministry of Foreign Affairs negotiates and manages bilateral labor agreements with countries like the UAE, which create structured frameworks for the legal and safe export of labor. To protect and ensure the welfare of Kenyan workers in the UAE, in 2018 Kenya and the UAE signed a Memorandum of Understanding on Labor Matters and a Protocol on Domestic Workers to regulate employment and establish safeguards. This is the primary policy document currently governing the migration of domestic workers from Kenya to the UAE. The ministry also provides consular support to migrant domestic workers abroad, including those in distress or in need of repatriation.
• Training institutions such as National Industrial Training Authority (NITA) provide skills training and certification to prospective migrant domestic workers, ensuring they meet the qualifications required by foreign employers. These training programs also profile and identify domestic workers who are job-ready. The homecare management course developed in 2018 is recognized as a comprehensive program that prepares qualified domestic workers for foreign markets. The course is offered for a total of 360 hours with both theory and practical components. NITA and NEA jointly recognize approved private institutions offering this course by issuing a certificate. 19

Key challenges, risks, and obstacles

High costs of migration and shifting of financial burden

The cost of migrating for work remains prohibitively high for domestic workers. Migrants are required to obtain essential travel documentation such as passports and visas, undergo mandatory medical examinations, and purchase air tickets—expenses that can total hundreds of thousands of shillings. While UAE-based employers or agents previously covered these costs, this is no longer the case. The financial burden has since been shifted to Kenyan recruitment agents, who then pass it on to the migrant workers themselves.

Most workers are unable to personally raise such amounts and end up relying on their families to step by sale or charge with moneylenders. Misinformation or lack of clarity about earnings causes disillusionment once the worker arrives in the Emirates and the pay is not sufficient to offset the loan plus interest. There have been news reports of scammers who even facilitate such loan arrangements only for the proposed worker to be told to use a visitor visa initially only to be abandoned once they arrive in Dubai airport. 20

Confiscation of passports and other identification documents upon arrival in the UAE

Many domestic workers report that their passports and other identification documents are confiscated upon arrival by employers or recruitment agents, making it harder for them to leave or seek help when the need arises. To clarify: this is not legal. Neither is it normal for employers to “hold” or “keep safe” passports and other identity cards.

UAE authorities have expressed their position that withholding workers’ documents is illegal. But the practice is so entrenched that it continues unabated. The Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratisation has established a forum for dispute resolution between domestic workers and their employers. While the forum is a useful avenue for dealing with such disputes, the balance of power between an Emirati employer and a foreign domestic worker makes such opportunities ludicrous. The authorities should consider establishing officers who can conduct visits to the homes with a clear mandate of ensuring compliance with the law and prevention of abuse of domestic workers.

Delayed or withheld wages

Workers have reported wages either delayed or withheld from them entirely.

Alleged abuse and human rights violations

Former migrant domestic workers have reported experiencing racism, physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, and severe restrictions on movement and communication while working in Gulf countries. These accounts have raised serious concerns about domestic worker welfare and made prospective domestic workers more hesitant about seeking such employment. Many instances of abuse have been reported widely in the region, 21 particularly the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Human rights groups and social media pages “Dubai’s Dirty Little Secret,” “Helping Hands,” and “Minimum Wage for Dubai Construction Workers” support those who are exploited in domestic work and construction industries.

Short-term contracts

Most contracts for domestic work in the UAE are short term (one to two years) 22 with limited job security or clear pathways for renewal, making domestic workers unwilling to migrate.

Poor and unsafe working conditions

Domestic workers have reported working long hours, lack of rest days, cruelty from their employers, and improper accommodation at their places of work. This includes inadequate food and physical abuse.

Competition from rival labor-importing countries

UAE faces growing competition from other labor-importing countries, which offer more attractive terms of employment or better-regulated recruitment frameworks. With this demand shift, some domestic workers now prefer alternative destinations that are perceived to provide safer working conditions.

Limited oversight and weak enforcement of protections for domestic workers

While the UAE has a robust employment law framework that is enforced by the Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratisation; domestic workers did not fall under the UAE labor laws prior to 2017. 23 This history, as well as the power dynamics involving mostly poor women working in private homes, makes abuse systemic.

The absence of a robust monitoring and enforcement system across both jurisdictions also makes it difficult to track violations or ensure adherence to ethical recruitment standards.

Limited access to skilled employment opportunities

Despite Kenya having a large pool of unemployed but skilled workers, most job opportunities offered to Kenyans in the UAE are semi-skilled or unskilled. This mismatch is largely due to the absence of mutual recognition of academic, technical, and professional qualifications between the two countries, 24 preventing skilled Kenyans from accessing appropriate job opportunities in the UAE labor market.

Recommendations and mitigation measures

Strengthen and enforce safe migration policies

• Enforce laws prohibiting passport confiscation to ensure migrant domestic workers retain access to their identification at all times.
• Residency and legal status should be governed by labor laws, not employer discretion. Employers should not have the power to file “absconding” claims or otherwise control a worker’s legal standing.
• Penalize agencies and employers that violate workers’ rights, and vet recruitment agencies continuously in both Kenya and the UAE.

Improve and operationalize bilateral labor agreements

• Enhance Kenya–UAE agreements to better protect domestic workers and promote ethical recruitment. Include mutual recognition of academic, technical, and professional qualifications to open up skilled job opportunities.

Standardize and regulate employment terms

• Introduce uniform contracts that clearly detail wages, working hours, rest days, leave entitlements, and grievance mechanisms.
• Ensure domestic work is fully included under UAE labor laws to guarantee equal protection and enforcement of rights.

Promote ethical recruitment and accountability

• Encourage adoption of ILO’s “Fair Recruitment” principles and support certification schemes for ethical agencies.
• Publicly recognize compliant agencies and hold non-compliant ones accountable through sanctions.

Introduce an employment-based visa system

• Decouple migrant workers’ visas and residence permits from individual Instead, allow workers to apply for and renew visas independently, based on proof of a valid job offer, not tied to a specific sponsor.

Ensure worker mobility and legal security

• Allow workers to change employers freely with notice, without requiring current employer approval or risking immigration status.
• Permit workers to exit the country at any time without needing employer consent.

Support systems and data-driven policy

• Establish a government-managed welfare and repatriation fund to assist distressed workers with legal aid, emergency support, and return assistance.
• Create a shared, secure database to track migrant worker contracts, complaints, and agency performance to inform evidence-based policymaking and identify high-risk actors.

Invest in technology and innovation

• Make credential and document more efficient: Pilot the issuance by the government of Kenya of digital credentials that migrants need, from passports to certificates of good conduct, in formats recognized by UAE.
• Use technology to protect migrant credentials: Develop further integration of migrant travel documents with digital wallets. For example, the UAE Pass, the digital identity wallet issued by the UAE, already enables secure digital signatures and holding official documents and credentials. This could protect migrants from employers withholding identity and other documents.